ETHNOBOTANY AS A TOOL TO PROTECT INTERESTS OF ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnobotany is the documentation of traditional knowledge of ethnic groups so that the valuable knowledge is not lost from the community as all the communities undergo changes in the due course of time. An ethnobotanist mainly documents the different tribes, ethnic groups, their life styles, plants used for various purposes, their traditions, beliefs etc. 

An ethnobotanist identifies the plants used by the tribes as medicine, food, fodder, and other miscellaneous uses. Indigenous knowledge is usually hidden among the ethnic groups, as they don't usually mingle with the external world. However, a few intelligent men intrude into these societies, steal their intellectual property, and take patents, in some distant place for the commercial use of the knowledge. In such cases, the original creator of the knowledge is the community and it is not properly benefitted. Such incidents have been reported from various parts of the world.

The popular cases of biopiracy of Azadirchta indica, Basmati rice, etc. are some classical examples. 

Azadirachta indica or Neem was used by the Indians from time immemorial but was not properly documented under the IPR. Some foreign company had taken a patent on the use of Neem which prevented all others from using the knowledge. In such cases, proper documentation of the indigenous knowledge is important. 

The Indian government has started a web initiative called TKDL - Traditional Knowledge Digital Library to document all such indigenous knowledge so that any patenting authority can inspect false claims made by frauds. Therefore, ethnobotanical documentation is very important for the interests of ethnic groups.

In addition there are Patenting Laws, IPR rules , etc to protect the interests of the ethnic groups. 

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR)

The constitutional right granted by the government of a country to the creator or owner of any intellectual property to exclude others from using the same commercially for a given period of time is called Intellectual Property Right. It is framed for the benefit of all inventors, creators, writers, etc. to get a fare share of it's commercial use in the name of copy rights. 

The creator gets exclusive rights for his / her intellectual property, that is a creation of the mind or brain, such as a poem, a story, a logo, a painting, a scientific discovery or a cooking recipe. No one can use the same concept without legal consent of the original creator as per the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). 

Traditional knowledge also come under IPR system. It is usually the biopirates, who steal traditional knowledge such as the uses of some plants for specific diseases and market it commercially by making modern medical combinations. 

The following categories are generally included in the IPR system.

1. Industrial designs.

2. Literary and artistic works.

3. Scientific discoveries.

4. Performances of performing artists. 

5. trade marks, logos, commercial names, designations etc.

6. traditional knowledge.

IP is divided into two categories for ease of understanding: 

1. Industrial Property 2. Copyright

Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. 

Properties are of two types - tangible property and intangible property i.e. one that is physically present and the other which is not in any physical form. Building, land, house, cash, jewelry are few examples of tangible properties which can be seen and felt physically. IP is intangible property.

The different types of Intellectual Property Rights are: 

i. Patents - Mainly given for discoveries eg: Electric Bulb, Car Engine, etc.

ii. Copyrights - Given for Stories, poems, etc.

iii. Trademarks- Given for trade names, product names etc. represented by TM

 iv. Industrial designs 

v. Protection of Integrated Circuits layout design 

vi. Geographical indications of goods - Ususally given to products from a specific geographical place. eg: Marayur Sharkara, Kasaragod Saree, Arnmula Kannadi, Darjeeling tea, Kanjipuram silk, Nagpur orange. 

vii. Biological diversity 

viii. Plant varieties and farmers rights 

IPR acts in India:

1. Indian Patents Acts, 1970

2. Indina Patents (Amendment) Act, 1999.

PARTICIPATORY FOREST MANAGEMENT

 Participatory forest management is a strategy to protect the forest and its resources with the help of local people residing nearby the forest. It has been considered the most effective strategy for forest management and conservation. Participatory forestry enables the involvement of people who have a direct stake in the forest and its resources in taking decisions regarding the forest, managing the forest and its resources, and formulating institutional frameworks for various forest-related programs. 

The inclusion of local communities in the conservation and management of the forest has been common for the last 25 years. Almost all countries in Africa and many in Asia are promoting Participatory Forest Management (PFM). Many countries are developing their national policies to include PFM as their plan of action.

The shift to PFM by the government is mainly due to the following aspects:

1. It is a more effective way of forest management as local people know the pulse of the forest, than any unknown newly recruited official.

2. It reduces the role and cost of the state in forest management.

3. It ensures livelihood for local people, as they get rewards from the government as honorarium. 

4. It is an effective method of decentralization of power.

5. The local people are more skilled 

6. it ensures a philosophical and psychological commitment of people in conserving the forest.

Roles of the people in PFM

1. Some local people, such as elders, teachers and local leaders can serve as a source of information regarding the forest. They have knowledge about the forest and they understand the needs of the local people. These people are a valuable source of information, hence called Key Informants.

2. People who share similar interests in the locality is treated as Interest Groups. An interest group can be formed based on age, gender, ethnic group etc. For example, a group of women who collect wood and honey from the forest or poor farmers in the locality.

The local people can be assigned the following duties:

1. Assessors of forest resources.

2. Decision makers of forest rules.

3. Implementers of forest action plans.

4.  Protectors of forest resources.

5. Silviculture breeders, experimenters etc.

6. Marketers of timber from forest.

History of PFM:

The local tribes of India had been suppressed intensely by various types of rules such as the Mughals, the British and even during early days of Independence. The Mughal rulers were unable to rule the tribes due to inaccessibility of the area. The tribals used 'warfare and withdraw' strategy to protect the forest resources from the Mughals. It was more aggressive with the entry of the British rulers. They tried to impose colonial rule on the tribals and extract revenue through 'Zamindars'. The tribals reacted violently and caused the Chur Rebellion which lasted from 1767 to 1980. It was the first ever rebellion against the British rule in India. But the British overpowered the tribes. 

The forest communities were further affected when Sal trees (Shorea robusta) were cut for making railway sleepers to expand the railway network. 

Post-Independence, India drafted the first Forest Policy in 1952, which proposed a functional classification of forests Protected forests, National forests, Village forests and tree-land. 

People's protests for forest conservation:

During 1970- 80, logging of trees for industrial purposes increased drastically and the people of Uttaranchal protested which was called Chipko Andolan. The villagers hugged the trees so as to prevent their cutting. As a result, the government of Uttar Pradesh imposed a 15 -year ban on tree felling.

The Arabari Experiment:

Forest officers of the Arabari region, of Midnapur district in West Bengal, recognized the role people can play in restoring degraded forests. They issued the first government order to include local people in protecting the forest. In return, 25% of the revenue obtained from the sale of timber resources was given to the locals.  This successful experiment led to the evolution of PFM concept.

The present state of PFM:

Today in India, we have 63618 forest protection committees spread over 27 states protecting 14 million hectares of forest.  

BIOPIRACY

When indigenous knowledge or a biological resource is used without the consent of the local people or the original inventor, it is considered Biopiracy. Many such cases have occurred in the case of patents; where private companies take the patent of indigenous knowledge such as to make medicines and commercialize it without the consent of the ethnic groups. It is an intellectual-level fraud for making a profit from bio-resources and indigenous knowledge.  

Biopiracy is a situation in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating from indigenous people, is used by others for profit without their permission or without providing compensation to them.

A few cases of biopiracy are mentioned below;

1. Patenting of Azadirachta indica

The people of India have been using neem for time immemorial for various purposes. Indians shared the knowledge to all the world, however pirating this knowledge, the USDA and an American Multi National Company W. R. Grace got a Patent (No.0426257B) from the European patent Officer on the "method of controlling the plants by the aid of hydrophobic extracted from neem oil. 

2. Patenting of Basmati Rice:

Basmati is a long grained aromatic rice traditionally cultivated in North India. In 1997 the US patenting and trademark office granted a patent of Basmati to an American company named Rise Tec Inc. The company claimed that they invented the rice variety! 

3. Rice Biopiracy:

A biotech company Syngenta had signed an MOU with Indira Gandhi Agricultural University to access Dr. Richcharia's (former director of Central Rice Research Institute and known as the Rice sage of India) priceless collection of 22,972 varieties of rice. 

ROLE OF ETHNIC GROUPS IN CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

The ethnic groups living in different parts of the world play a crucial role in the conservation of plant genetic resources. Many tribal societies have practices of worshipping nature. They believe that the earth does not belong to any single individual, but the generations to come also have rights in it. The famous quote by a Red Indian Tribal Chief is relevant in this scenario: "Only when the last tree has been cut down, the last fish has been caught and the last stream poisoned, Will we realize that we can not eat money."

About 300 million indigenous people are living in the world, of which 150 million live in Asia and 68 million live in India. There are 227 ethnic groups and 573 tribal communities in India belonging to Negroid, Proto- Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, West Breachy and Nordic racial stocks. They treat the forest as a shelter and eat forest resources. They protect plants based on their beliefs and uses.

List of plants conserved by ethnic groups:

Plants conserved based on a belief

1. Mangifera indica- (Anacardiaceae)- to worship Lord Vidhyadhara

2. Terminalia arjuna- (Combretaceae)- Lord Brahma.

3. Citrus medica- (Rutaceae)- Lord Brihaspati

4. Aegle marmelos- (Rutaceae)- Lord Shiva

5. Azadiracta indica- (Meliaceae)- Serpent King Nagaraja

6. Ocimum sanctum- (Lamiaceae)- Goddess Lakshmi

7. Nerium indicum- (Apocynaceae)- Lord Ganesh

8. Calotropis gigantea- (Asclepiadaceae)- Lord Shiva

Crop plants conserved by tribals

1. Amorphophallus paenonflodium- Araceae- Petiole /bulb as vegetable

2. Achyranthes aspera- Amaranthaceae- Vegetable

3. Bauhinia purpurea- Fabaceae- Leaf as vegetable.

4. Dioscorea alata- Dioscoriaceae- Tuber is edible.

5. Curculigo orchioides- Amaryllidaceae- Tuber is edible & medicine.

Plants protected in sacred groves

1. Alstonia scholaris- Apocynaceae

2. Helicteres isora.

3. Rauvolfia serpentina

4. Vateria indica

Plants used for snake bite as antidote

Acorus calamus, Bauhina purpurea, 

PLANTS USED BY TRIBALS

 1. FOOD PLANTS

The tribal people mainly depend on forest plants for their food requirements. In India about 800 edible plants are used by various tribal populations. Tribals collect various parts of the plants growing in forests such as fruits, flowers, seeds, young shoots, leaves, etc for eating. The following are examples

LEAF

Achyranthes aspera- Amaranthaceae- Young leaves.

Basella rubra- Basellaceae- Leaves

Bauhinia purpurea- Fabaceae- Leaves

Pouzolzia zeylanica- Urticaceae- Leaves.

Cannabis sativa- Bhang- Leaves and tender shoot- Rajasthan.

FRUIT

Aegle marmelos- Rutaceae.

Diospyros melanoxylon- Ebenaceae- 

INTOXICANTS & BEVERAGES

    Intoxicants or the beverages consumed by tribals for intoxication are of various types depending upon the plant from which they are obtained and the process of preparation. Women and children also consume these beverages during religious ceremonies or festivals. Moreover, these drinks also play a supplementary role for tribal people and are also used in small quantities as medicine for various ailments by different tribes. For example, rice beer is used as an intoxicant by most tribals in India and it is also used for medicinal purposes as a light tranquilizer, for treatment of fever, dysentery, diarrhea, and gynecological disorders.

1. Borassus flabellifer 

Family: Arecaceae 

This plant is commonly known as the ‘Asian Palmyra Palm’ or ‘Toddy Palm’ or ‘Wine palm .The sap of this plant is used by the tribals for making an alcoholic drink called ‘tadi.’ The sap is obtained by tapping the shoot top and collecting it in earthen pots. It is fermented before consumption.

2. Cannabis sativa 

 Family: Cannabaceae 

 A beverage called bhang lassi is prepared from the female flowers, especially during festivals. The buds along with leaves are crushed in a pestle and mortar, the paste is added to milk or curd and filtered, finally it is flavored with sugar, fruit and spices. Consumption of this beverage is part of ancient Hindu culture.

3. Eleusine coracana 

 Family: Poaceae

 An alcoholic drink called ‘paise’ is prepared from the grains of this plant. A fermented paste prepared from the grains of wheat or maize is used to make this liquor. This beverage is prepared fresh or a day earlier and tribal men, as well as women, consume at least, as well as women, one litre per head in the morning before going to fields for work. 

4. Ficus hispida 

Family: Moraceae

 Country liquor is prepared from this plant by tribals of Orissa. Tribals of Meghalaya use unripe fruit as vegetable. The fruit juice is used for various medicinal purposes also.

5. Madhuca longifolia

 Family: Sapotaceae

Dried corollas or flower buds of this plant are  fermented to obtain an alcoholic drink called ‘mahua’ which is very popular among the tribals of India. Gond and Kol tribes also use it for treating dysentery.

RESINS

Resins can be defined as oxidation products of various essential oils.

1. Gardenia resinifera 

Family: Rubiaceae 

Uses: Members of Gond tribe use resin obtained from the stem and buds of this plant as insecticide and repellant for flies. 

2. Butea monosperma 

Family: Fabaceae 

The gum resin is of ethno-medicinal importance and is used as tonic. It has diuretic and astringent properties.

3. Shorea robusta 

Family: Dipterocarpaceae. 

Sal resin is applied for relief from chest pain and cramps.

4. Pinus roxburghii 

Family: Pinaceae 

Besides being commercially important, pine resin has local medicinal uses also.It is used for treatment of boils, bone fractures, swellings, ulcers, urinary complaints and sprains.

OILS

1. Allium sativum 

Family: Liliaceae 

Oil obtained from garlic bulb is rich in sulphur and has strong antimicrobial activity .It is used by Indian tribals for head massage to treat headache. Gond tribes use it.

2. Azadirachta indica 

Family: Meliaceae 

Oil obtained from the seeds is called neem oil which is very aromatic.It is used for treatment of skin problems such as itching, healing of cuts and wounds.

3. Madhuca indica 

Family: Sapotaceae 

Oil is edible, commonly known as ‘garang’,’ idum’ or ‘mahua tel’. It is used as hair oil & lamp oil.

4. Ricinus communis 

Family: Euphorbiaceae 

Castor oil obtained from the seed of this plant is used by tribals for treating disorders like rheumatism, constipation and worm infestation.

MISCELLANEOUS- Religious and Cultural

Ficus religiosa- Peepal or Bodhi tree- 

Ficus benghalensis- Banyan tree

Aegle marmelos- Found in Shiva temples

Saraca indica- In Hinduism, this tree is associated to the God of Love, also known as the Kama Deva.

Azadirachta indica- associated with goddess Durga and many people believe that neem trees help in keeping evil spirits away.

Ocimum sanctum- Tulsi- used in temples.

Phyllanthus emblica- Chyavanprash

Cocos nucifera- in temple rituals.

INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION

The term megadiverse country refers to any nation that harbours the majority of Earth's species and high numbers of endemic species.The UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) has recognised 17 Megadiversity Nations across the world. India is one among them due to its commendable diversity of organisms. 

India has 4 out of 34 globally identified  Biodiversity Hotspots (Himalaya, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, and Srinlanka- Sundaland). India has wide range of habitats- The varied edaphic, climatic and topographic conditions and years of geological stability have resulted in a wide range of ecosystems and habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, and coastal and marine ecosystems. Arid, semi- arid and desert regions occupy 38.8% of India's land mass with 682 species of which 6% is endemic. This area is also rich with cat type predators- Lion, Leopard and Tiger. The Great Indian Bustard is a threatened bird living in this habitat. 

The cold Himalayan region covers 5.8% of the geographical area. The cold desert also harbors endangered species such as snow leopard, yak and Asiatic ibex.  

India has a good collection of wetland habitats as well with about 4500 square kilometers of Mangrove ecosystem. The fish and bird diversity is high in such regions.  We have 783 fresh water fishes, of which 223 are endemic. India has good fish diversity and the country is one of the largest fish producers of the world. 

India has a lengthy coastal habitat of 7500 kilometers, with diverse habitats like estuaries, lagoons, backwaters, salt marshes and coral reefs. These habitats are also rich in species diversity.

India has diverse forest habitats, consisting of 23.5% of total land mass of which 75% are located in North East states India. India has 16 major forest types. The mountain ecosystem of India consists of forest ecosystems. Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are rich in diversity of species with 40% of endemism. 

Considering the major categories of life forms, India has the following diversity:

Animals

1. Protists- 2577 (out of 31,200 in the world)
2. Mollusca- 5070 (out of 81,000)
3. Arthropoda - 68300 ( out of 9,90,000)
4. Fishes- 2546 (out of 30,000)
5. Amphibia- 209 (out of 6200)
6. Reptiles- 456 (out of 8200)
7. Birds- 1232 (out of 9900)
8. Mammals- 390 (out of 5490)

Plants (As per 2007 data)

1. Algae- 6500 (out of 40,000)
2. Bryophytes - 2825 (out of 17000)
3. Pteridophytes- 1200 (out of 13000)
4. Gymnosperms- 48 (out of 980)
5. Angiosperms- 18000 (out of 2,50,000)

Microbes

1. Bacteria- 850 (out of 8500)
2. Fungi- 14500 (out of 72000)
3. Virus- 1200 (out of ????? not estimated) as per 2019 data
4. Lichens - 2000 (out of 35000)

 

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

Grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses, that is members of  families Poaceae and Cyperaceae etc. The vegetation is characterized by a continuous cover of grasses. Grasslands receive up to 150 cm rainfall per year. The temperature in this region varies from 15 to 35 degree Celsius. The dry season lasts for nearly 8 months,  making it the longest phase of a grass land. The grasses dominate in this region because rain fall is not sufficient to support the growth of trees and  other larger species. 

Grasslands are mainly categorized in to two:

1) Tropical grasslands

2) Temperate grasslands

Tropical grassland

Tropical grasslands are those distributed in the tropical countries of the earth. They are popularly known as Savannah. Fire is a frequent character of this grassland. The major species of the vegetation include grasses, Acacia and palms. These grasslands are well known through various television channels such as Discovery, National Geographic and Animal Planet. This habitat provides a lot of stories of predation and survival. 

The largest of savannah is located in Africa, especially central part of the continent such as Kenya, Tanzania etc. They are also found in Brazil. In India, the Banni Grassland Reserve is located in Gujarat. The soil in savannah is porous, which promotes rapid drainage of water, therefore only a thin layer of humus is present. 

Animals occurring in the tropical grasslands include, lion, cheetah, leopard, hyena., elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, ant eaters and African mole rats.

Temperate grassland

Temperate grasslands are those distributed in the temperate zone of the earth. The temperature in the winter falls below minus 10 degrees, while summer is very hot reaching 35 degrees. Rainfall ranges between 25 to 100 cm in a year. Fire is very frequent, often initiated by lightening and therefore tall trees are unable to sustain.

Temperate grasslands are called in different names in different countries. For example, Prairies in North America, Steppes in Russia, Pampas in Argentina and Veldt in South Africa. Prairies are grasslands with tall grasses while steppes are grasslands with short grasses. The soil is deep, dark, and nutrient rich. The rotting roots of the grasses hold the soil and prevent erosion. 

The vegetation include tall grasses such as Andropogon gerardii, Panicum, Switch grass etc. The animals include Kangaroo in Australia, Pronghorn antelope in North America, Horses in Europe, gazelles, buffaloes, saiga antelope and many smaller animals.

Importance

1. Good centers of carbon sequestration. 

2. Grasslands begin the food chain in the ecosystem.

3. Helps for domestication of many helpful animals such as buffaloes, horses, ass and cow.

4. Prevents soil erosion.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Desert is a terrestrial ecosystem which receives very little, lesser than 25cm per year, rainfall or precipitation. Deserts cover as much as one fifth of the earth's land surface and forms one of the major ecosystems on earth. 

Examples : Namib desert, South Africa. 

                    Atacama desert, South America

                    Sahara desert, Africa

                    Thar desert, India - Pakistan

The word comes from a Latin word desertum which means 'to abandon'.

Desertification is an ongoing process, though we don't realize it on a real time basis. We can sense the rise in atmospheric temperature, lack of rain etc., which will gradually lead to the formation of new deserts. Ancient civilizations of Greece, Mesopotamian and Mayan were demolished by the process of desertification.

Life is difficult in desert habitats, challenged with dehydration, lack of drinking water, extreme heat and sweat, lack of biodiversity which leads to lack of food material etc. Many of the organisms which survive on the deserts have specific adaptations for its survival. The camel has a bump on its back for storage of fat (NOT WATER) and they can live many days without eating anything. Their nose is adapted to prevent sand entering while sand storms. webbed feet to prevent sinking in to the sand and long eye lashes for preventing sand entering eyes.

Deserts can be classified in to two types;

1) Hot Deserts

2) Cold Deserts

Hot Deserts

Hot deserts are places with very high temperature as high as 50 degree Celsius in the day and freezing cool in the night. The soils are nutrient poor. They are found around latitude 20-30 degrees north and south of the equator. They occupy nearly 20% of the earth's surface. 

Exaples include Sahara, Atacama of Chile, Kalahari of Africa and Simpson of Australia.

The plants of the hot desert include succulents such as cactus, annuals, desert shrubs such as Fonquieria splendens. The cactus can store water. Many plants have volatile chemicals to prevent herbivores.

Animals include ants, birds, rodents, lizards, snakes, small mammals etc. Examples - Horned viper, Addax antelope, Ostrich, Camel, Golden Jackal etc.

Cold Deserts

The day time temperature in cold deserts can be around 2-4 degree Celsius, though it can raise upto 26 degrees in summer. In winter, the temperature is as low as minus 26 degrees. Precipitation is less than 25 cm per year. They show the formation of ice coated regions during winter. 

Examples-  Gobi desert, Mongolia; Great basin desert, North America; Patagonian desert, Argentina.

Succulents are absent in cold deserts, as they are susceptible to freezing. Many species have spines and shed leaves. Examples- Artemesia, Sagebrush etc

Animals live in burrows to escape the cold weather. Examples- Jack rabbit, Pocket mice, Kit fox and Coyote.

Importance

1. Deserts account for one sixth of world's population.

2. They cover one fifth of land mass.

3. Formation of minerals via dehydration- example Gypsum, borates, nitrates.

4. Carbon sequestration- The cyanobacteria in deserts store CO2 from air.

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- RAUVOLFIA SERPENTINA

Rauvolfia serpentina, known in multiple common names- Sarpagandhi, Sarpagandha, Indian Snakeroot, Devil Pepper etc- is one of the ancient plant widely used by humans since ages. 

Scientific Name: Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz.

Family: Apocynaceae

Habitat: Moist shady places near forests of India, Srilanka and Indonesia. 

There are nearly 100 species of  the genus Rauvolfia, a member of the milkweed family Apocynaceae. These plants are characterised by the presence of milky latex in stem and leaves. 

Morphology: The plants are sub-shrubs, with watery latex. Simple leaves with whorled (3-4 leaves) phyllotaxy. Cymose inflorescence. Petals white and fruits are crimson red.

Uses: 

The plant is widely used in modern medicine, ayurvedic, unani  and folk medicine as well. 

1. It is used in treating hypertension, eg. BP Care & Cure made by German's company.

2. It is used for insomnia, i.e., is lack of sleep. 

3. Used for central nervous system diseases.

4. Used as a tranquilizer, in case of anxiety related issues, for example Alprazolam tablets and Zolfresh tablets.

5. Root extract is used for intestinal disorders, such as dysentery and diarrhea. 

6. Used in treating hysteria and schizophrenia. 

Constituents:

The constituent is Reserpine. In addition, a lot of other secondary metabolites are present in Rauvolfia- Ajmalicine, Ajamaline, Chandrine, Renoxidine, Serpentine and tetraphyllicine. 

ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS- INDIGOFERA TICTORIA നീലയമരി

Indigofera , belonging to family Fabaceae, is a popular plant used by humans since ages for extraction of the blue dye Indigo. The plant is believed to be used in Egyptian mummies before 4000 years.   The dye is obtained from its leaves. 

Morphology: Indigo is an erect, profusely branched herb which grows up to 2 meters. Leaves are pinnately compound, 9-13 leaflets opposite, elliptic, base and apex rounded. Inflorescence is raceme, flowers reddish, standard, wing and keel petals present, fruit is a pod, maximum 12 seeds are found in a pod.

Habitat: Widely cultivated.

Uses:

1. Main source of Indigo dye, which is called 'King of dyes'

2. It is used aa green manure in coffee plantations.

3. It is used as tooth brush.

4. Leaf extract is used to cure burns and wounds of horses, cattle and sheep.

5. Root is used for tooth ache.

6. Antidote for snake bite, scorpion bite etc.

7. Tanzanians use it for syphilis and gonorrhoea. 

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- PONGAMIA PINNATA

Pongamia pinnata, also known as Indian beech tree or Pongam oil tree, is commonly seen in mangrove forests and deciduous forests of the Indo-Malayan region. It is a fast growing medium sized tree which is evergreen by nature. In Malayalam, it is called 'Ungu'. 

Morphology: Evergreen trees reaching up to 20 meter height. Leaves are imparipinnate, alternate arrangement, 5-7 leaflets are present, pubescent, ovate, acuminate apex, leaf margin entire, calyx 5, petals 5, stamens 10, monadelphous, ovary inferior with single chamber, fruit is a pod, reniform seeds.

Habitat: Deciduous and mangrove forests.

Uses:

1. Potential source of biodiesel.

2. Traditional medicine for bronchitis, whooping cough and rheumatism.

3. Used in itches and skin diseases.

4. Bark used for piles when bleeding.

5. Used as remedy for diabetes.

6. Roots used for cleaning gum and ulcer.

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS

Tribulus terrestris, commonly known as Devil's Thorn is a plant belonging to family Zygophyllaceae.  It is distributed in temperate and tropical regions such as Europe, Africa, Asia, New Zealand and Australia. It grows abundantly in  dry deciduous forests, wastelands and road sides. 

Morphology: They are prostrate herbs with opposite leaves. Leaflets are in 4-5 pairs, each leaflet has a length of 1.5 cm. Flowers are golden yellow, with 5 petals, 10 stamens, 5 stigmas and 5 lobed ovary. Fruit has spines. 

Constituents: Spirostanol, furostanol and saponins.

Uses: 

1. Tribulus is used to increase athletic performance, body building etc.

2. They are used to puncture the tyres of bicycles, hence called 'puncture wines'.

3. It is used for kidney problems such as kidney stones.

4. Used as 'diuretic pill' to increase urine production.

5. Used for skin disorders such as eczema, psoriasis and scabies.

6. For heart and circulatory issues such as  high cholesterol.

7. It is used for digestive issues such as flatulence, constipation and intestinal worms.

8. Used for nose tumor and stomatitis (inflammation of mouth).

9. A powerful male sexual stimulant acting as 'herbal Viagra" and improving sperm quality.

10. Female sexual health, to reduce issues with menopause such as hot flushes, depression, negative thinking and emotional stress.

 

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- GLORIOSA SUPERBA

Gloriosa superba is a well known ornamental plant widely cultivated in Indian houses. The plant belongs to family Liliaceae and commonly called as Glory Lily. It is a native to tropical Africa and  tropical Asia. It is a tuberous climbing plant with attractive red flowers with striking wavy yellow margins. It flowers from November to March every year. The plant is toxic in nature and can harm animal life if used in very large quantity, all parts of the plant being poisonous. 

Habitat: A native of tropical Asia and Africa, it is found through out India (from the Himalayas to the Deccan ) . It is found throughout  Western Ghats, Madagascar Islands and Srilanka. 

Morphology: The wines of the plant are tall, though weak stemmed, with tuberous roots. The tips of the leaves are spirally twisted and forms the tendril to climb other plants and elevated objects. Leaves are lanceolate and acuminate. Flowers are large and solitary. Six refxed petals are seen in each flower. The petals hang down during initial stages and become erect when mature. The ovary is exposed and the flower produces five long stamens. 

Components: Colchicines and gloriosines.

Uses: 

1. The poisonous nature of the plant has given a notorious reputation for the plant as it is widely used for suicid purpose. It causes vomiting and stomach ache. 

2. It is used as ornamental plants.

3. Every part of Gloriosa is used  for medicinal purposes.

4. It is used in Ayurveda for ulcers, laxative, abortifacient and leprosy infection.

5. It is also used in piles.

6. Tubers have anti-fertility effect.

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- VITEX NEGUNDO

Vitex negundo, (Chinese chastetree) a member of family Verbenaceae, known commonly as Nirgundi or Kari Nochi, is distributed all over India. 

Habitat: It is common in the riverbanks, road sides etc. It is native of Africa and Asia. Found mostly in India, Burma, Afgan, China, Srilanka, and Malaysia.

Morphology: Vitex is a shrub having a purplish pubescent shade all over. It has aromatic and pale bark. Leaves are 3-5 foliate. Length of leaflet varies from 5-14. Elliptic or lanceolate leaves are seen. Inflorescence is a panicle having length up to 20 cm. Calyx has 5 sepals, corolla is purple in color, upper lip 2-lobes and lower lip 3-lobes. Stamens-4, filaments purple. Style purple, stigma bi-fid and fruit is a purple or black  drupe.

Constituents: Casticin, chrysosplenol and vitexin. 

Uses: 

1. Chasteberry is known as a female remedy, used to reduce sexual desire. Roman wives kept the leaves of chasteberry  on their couches, when their husbands were abroad, that's the reason why the plant is known as chasteberry tree. 

2. The plant is also used in monastries, as it reduced sexual desire, and became a spice food where it was called "Monk's pepper".

3. It is used from ancient times to regularize monthly periods and treat dysmenorrhea. It also eases menopause symptoms. 

4. It reduces ear pain when mixed with mustard oil and used as an ear drop. 

5.   It is supposed to decrease obesity. A spoonful of juice from the leaves of Vitex taken orally for this purpose. 

6. It is used to treat diabetes, in combination with Catharanthus, and Azadirachta.

7. It is a household pesticide an also used in witchcraft. 

8. Herbal shoes are prepared from vitex to treat rheumatism in Chattisgarh, India. 

9. It was used for punishment in ancient China.

10. It is believed to repel 'evil eye' by the Oroan tribe.

11. It is used as a totem plant for defeat in war. The winning army used to wear Cardiospermum halicabacum, while those who lost the war were supposed to wearthe flowers of  Vitex. 

12. Vitex is considered as a biological indicator for the presence of water.

13. It is used as hedge plant, as no animal feeds on it.

14. Fresh leaves are used to mask the smell of rotting meat, when boiled with it.

15. Dry leaves are used for storing woolen garments as they repel insects.

16. Leaves are burnt to repel mosquitoes and other smokes.

17. The Lodha tribe uses dry leaf to repel bedbugs.

18. Green leaves are used as green manure. 

19. It is used as a medicine for several diseases of cattle. 

20. It enhances memory.

21. The leaf paste is applied on the navel and vagina for easy delivery.

22. In Ayurveda it is used to make Nirgundi taila, Nirgundi ghritha etc.

23. There is a local saying, "A man can not die of disease in a place where Vitex, Adathoda and Acorus are found".

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- OCIMUM SANCTUM

Ocimum sanctum, known popularly as Tulsi, belongs to family Lamiaceae and used as medicinal plant for thousands of years. Tulsi is known as the Queen of Herbs. The plant is considered holy by the Hindu religion and conserve the plant in front of the home known as 'thulasithara'.Known also as 'sacred basil' tulsi is widely used in Ayurvedic and Unani systems.

In Ayurveda it is considered 'Elixir of Life', helping millions of people to recover from daily ailments. It is used in cold, cough, head ache, stomach issues and various inflammations. 

Morphology: The plants are herbs or sub shrubs, with purplish hairs on the brachlets. Leaves grows up to 3 cm, elliptic in shape; inflorescence raceme, growing up to 10 cm. Bracts are present, calyx is purple, campanulate corolla with 5 lobes, corolla has sessile dotted glands, and  stamens are usually 4.

Habitat: Being a sacred plant, tulsi is widely cultivated in the houses of the Hindus. The plant occurs from 0 to 2000 m altitude all over the globe. 

Constituents: Leaf has volatile oil composed of eugenol, euginal, urosolic acid, limatrol, estragol and  sitosterol.

Uses:

1. It is a good home remedy against cold, cough, head ache and fever. People use the leaves of tulsi to vapor, or to make tulsi tea to fight cold related diseases. 

2. Recent studies show that tulsi has anti-diabetic properties. It significantly decreases the level of glucose in blood. 

3. Studies in rats have proved that tulsi can reduce the production of stress induced cAMP in cardiac tissues.

4. Mouth ulcers can be cured using tulsi extract and lemon.

5. Tulsi reduces the levels of cholesterol in blood. 

6. It has anti-aging property due to the presence of vitamin C which acts to reduce free radicals.

7. It can treat kidney stones due to diuretic property, thereby decreasing the levels of uric acid in blood.

8. Tulsi helps to kill bacteria and infections. 

9. Eugenol is effective in treating skin diseases.

10. Tulsi can decrease eye infections caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi. It reduces eye inflammation.

11. Tulsi is a natural mouth freshner. It can disinfect oral cavity and prevent dental diseases, dental cavities. It also removes tartar, plaque and bad breath.

ETHNOBOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PLANTS- AZADIRACHTA INDICA (NEEM)

 Azadirachta indica, also known as Neem (Family: Meliaceae), is mainly seen on the Indian subcontinent. It has been extensively used for various ailments from the pre-historic times. The WHO estimates that about 80% of population in the developing countries depends on neem, directly or indirectly. Neem has also been introduced to the Caribbean, South and Central America. 

Morphology: Neem is a medium sized tree, reaching up to 50 meter height. It has a large round shaped crown of up to 20 meter diameter. It is basically evergreen, but sheds leaves during dry season. It has a deep tap root system and depends on mycorrhizae. The bark is usually grey, and produces fissures and flakes. A sticky smelling sap exudate is produced in humid season. 

The branches are many and spreads to all sides. Leaves are alternate, petiolate and seen at the end of the branches. They are pinnate, glabrous (without hairs) and glossy dark green in color.  Ten to twenty leaflets are seen in a compound leaf. The length of the leaflets vary from 5 to 10 cm and sickle shaped. 

Numerous small, white, fragrant flowers are produced in clusters reaching up to 20 cm. Fruit is drupe with thin epicarp, mucilaginous mesocarp and thick endocarp. Seeds contain oil from which neem oil is commercially produced.

Habitat: Natural habitat of neem tree is dry places which are deciduous. The plant can also colonize other habitats. Interestingly it is seen in the riverbanks of Australia and also in Sahara desert, where they use this plant to prevent desertification.  It is a popular shade tree in regions such as Tamil Nadu in India.

Uses: 

1. Neem is highly effective for chronic skin conditions such as psoriasis and eczema. Ring worms and warts are also treated neem extracts. Organic neem oil is the mainly used form of neem. 

2. Sidha medicine uses neem for various skin diseases. 

3. Recently a snake venom inhibitor was isolated from neem leaves.

4. Neem is used in Ayurveda system for treating ulcers and gastric discomforts. It protects the stomach and removes harmful toxins. 

5. It is used for all forms of parasites. Neem kills internal and external parasites. The extract contains hormone like molecules which mimic the hormones of the parasite and interferes its life cycle. They also prevent eggs from hatching. 

6. It also shows anti-inflammatory activity. 

7. Neem is also efficient in treating sexually transmitted diseases. 

8.Recent studies point towards anti-viral activity of neem. It is found to be effective against duck plague virus. 

9. Neem is designated as" the Tree of 21st century" by the United Nations.

    

METHODS IN ETHNOBOTANY

Every branch of science has a methodology, to study and to elaborate knowledge, so does Ethnobotany. The methodological aspects of Ethnobotany includes the following:

1. Field work

2. Herbarium

3. Ancient Literature

4. Archeological findings

5. Sacred places.

FIELD WORK

An ethnobotanical inventory includes field work, that is vising the area of interest and collecting information from the people inhabiting the locality. It is the main and most time consuming part of ethnobotanical study. For a field study, you have to arrange the following things before the study begins:

1. Mode of transportation- Choose an appropriate mode of transportation such as bus, train, flight, private taxi based on the availability of funds. Bike is a cheap mode of transportation when the number of the team is less.

2. Accommodation and food- Most places in the forest do not have any accommodation at all. In such cases a portable tent can be useful. Arranging accommodation at the houses of local people can be an option at some places. Carrying a gasoline travelling stove and some utensils can be very helpful if the field trip is for many days. Van life is a cheaper mode of field study, so that you can save a lot money which otherwise go for staying expenses.

3. Making a route map and travel schedule- You must have prepare a route map and travel schedule. This is essential especially when your field visit involve international destinations and air travel. The early you book ticket, the better. You should decide which are the spots for data collection, so that there is clarity about the entire trip.

4. Essential equipment- Camera, notepad, pen etc are essential for any field trip. 

5. Essential medicines- You can carry personal and essential medicines because medical shops may not be available in forest destinations.

6. Survey questionnaire-  Field work involves surveying native people, so it is essential that we have a set of questions to ask with them. Enlist the important things you would like to ask during the survey part.

Once you are prepared, you can start the field work. The field work involves the following things

1. House surveys- You can visit villages of ethnic communities and ask your queries to the villagers. You may have to visit a few houses, meet people and interact with them. Sometimes many ethnic people will not show interest to share information with you and you can not force anyone to co-operate with you. Be gentle and inform the purpose of your survey. The more people become comfortable they may open up things with you.

2. Plant collection- It is important to collect plants for making herbaria of your trip. Collect twigs of plants with a few leaves and flowers. Use a siccature or blade or scissors for this purpose.

3. Filed notes- Write down the important data you have gathered, such as name of the species, uses, available places, GPS location, vernacular name of the plant,  name of the informant, gender, sex, age, education, which part of the plant is used, how it is used, fresh or dry, how it is administered, for how long the treatment is needed etc.

4. Photography- You can take a few photographs of the locality, people and the plants for future reference. If the villagers are not interested in taking photograph, better leave it. But it is essential that you take photographs of the plants of interest, for later identification purposes.

Most workers do not prefer short term trips for field works, instead they stay there for a year or more live with the people as one among them. This makes them understand and collect two types of data; the cultural data and scientific data. They keep a research diary in hand to record day to day progress of work. Interviews can be recorded using devices for future reference. 

HERBARIUM PREPARATION

Herbaria are dry plant specimens collected from the field and stored for future reference, identification etc. It was Luca Ghini in the 16th century who started the practice of making herbaria and it is still one of the important methodologies used in plant taxonomy, morphology, economic botany and ethnobotany. You can visit the international herbarium at Royal Botanical Garden, Kew by clicking the link. The Central National Herbarium is located at Calcutta.

You may need knife, blade, scissors, plastic bags, field book and vasculum for the purpose of collecting the plants. A suitable twig will be collected and stored in the vasculum until reaching a proper place for pressing the plants. Bloating papers are used to dry the specimens, which will be kept in a wooden or metallic press. The pressed materials are to be checked after 24 hours and the bloating papers are replaced. A drier can be used to dry the specimens. To avoid fungal and insect attacks formalin, mercuric chloride, naphthalene balls etc. are used

Mounting of the dried specimens will be carried out using standard herbarium sheets. Glues such as Fevicol can be used for this purpose. Labels have to pasted on the herbarium sheets to display information such as name of the species, place of collection, date of collection, morphological notes, name of the collector etc. 

Storage of the herbarium sheets can be done in wooden or metallic cabinets arranged in alphabetical order.  

ANCIENT LITERATURE

Ethnobotany gathers a lot of benefits from ancient literature as it deals with information from the lives of ancient people. Examples of ancient literature used in Ethnobotany include Charaka samhitha, Vrikshayurveda, Ashtanga Hridayam etc.

Charaka samhitha is a sankrit text of ayurveda written by Charaka (100-500 AD). The text has eight books and a total of 120 chapters. Sushrutha samhitha was composed by Sushrutha (200-500 AD). It has 186 chapters and deals with 1120 diseases, 700 medicinals plants, 57 animal resources and 64 mineral resources. Ashtanga hridaya is one of the most important foundations of Ayurveda and said to have written by  ancient sage Vagbhata. 

Van Rheede (1678- 1693) compiled Hortus malabaricus with the help of Collatt Vaidyan and Itty Achuthan, which deals with the important plants of Malabar. Ezhava community contributed some important texts such as Yogamritham by Uppott Kannan, Oushadhi Nighandu by Thayyil Kumaran Krishnan and Keralaramam by Itty Achuthan.

Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, documented 200 plants of medicinal importance.

ARCHEOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The relationship with ancient people and plants are dealt in Archaeobotany based on the plant remains found from ancient locations. Archaeobotanical samples are of two types- Micro-botanical remains and macro-botanical remains based on the size of the material. Macro-botanical studies include seeds, fruits, nuts, wood charcoal etc. Micro-botanical remains are mainly pollen, phytoliths, starch and diatoms.

SACRED PLACES

Humans worshipped natural forces from the pre-historic times, believing that nature punishes for bad deeds and offered specific materials such as flowers and fruits to impress the deities. Sacred grove system and temple systems have evolved from this concept. Plants are conserved in sacred groves. Plants fall into the following categories based on it's uses in sacred places; 

1. Plants used in temple rituals throughout the year- Tulsi, Koovalam

2. Plants whose flowers and leaves are offered and planted near temple premises- Ixora, 

3. Fruit trees whose fruits are used for temple functions- Annona, Mango

4. Plants used to make sacred fire in Homa ritual- Calophyllum, Ricinus

5. Plants used to make temple dishes, prasada etc- banana, sugar cane, grapes

6- Plants used to make utensils and decoration- Polyalthia, Musa, Santalum.

All the best!

Shijith Puthan Purayil

ECOSYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION

 Ecosystem is a broad term which includes all organisms and the environment they live, i.e. it includes all living and non living things, and their interactions. In other words it is a community of organisms along with their physical environment. The study of ecosystems is called Ecology. It was Sir A G Tansley, who was an English Botanist, who introduced the concept of 'Ecosystem". The living and non-living components of the ecosystems are interlinked by means of energy transfer and biogeochemical cycles. Ecosystem can be defined as 'the living community of plants, animals and microbes in an area and their surrounding environment such as soil, air and water.' The basic living components of the ecosystem are producers, consumers and decomposers.

Ecosystems are broadly divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water.

1. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Aquatic ecosystems are water based ecosystems in which water acts as the surrounding environment for the living organisms. Aquatic ecosystems are further classified in to the following categories. - marine ecosystem, estuarine ecosystem and freshwater ecosystem, based on the salinity of water.

Marine ecosystem: When the salinity of the water is equal or more than 35ppt (parts per thousand), the ecosystem is considered to be marine. 

Freshwater ecosystem: When the salinity is 0.5 ppt or less, it is considered as freshwater ecosystem.

Estuarine ecosystem: When the salinity keeps varying between 0.5 to 30 ppt it is considered to be estuarine.

2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

All the ecosystems which are seen on the land are called terrestrial ecosystems. They can be further divided based on the the types of plants and animals inhabiting. Some features of terrestrial organisms are the following; they are exposed directly to air, hence developed respiratory system for gaseous exchange; the plants have extensive root system for finding water in the soil and absorbing it; animals have developed mechanisms to combat with heat or cold.

Forest ecosystem: Terrestrial ecosystem in which trees are the dominant vegetation. They can be further subdivided into tropical forests, temperate forests and boreal forests.

Grassland ecosystem: When the vegetation is dominated by grasses, the ecosystem is called grassland ecosystem. They can be further divided into tropical grasslands and temperate grasslands. Tropical grasslands are called savannah and temperate grasslands are called prairies, steppes, pampas, veldts etc. in different places.

Desert ecosystem: Desert is a region which receives very less rainfall, which is usually less than 25 cm per year. There are two types of deserts: hot deserts and cold deserts.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Ecological pyramids are graphical representations of the trophic structure in an ecosystem. The major trophic levels in an ecosystem are the following;

1. Producers

2. Primary consumers

3. Secondary consumers

4. Tertiary consumers

5. Decomposers

Producers are green plants and algae which have the potential to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide and make glucose through a process called photosynthesis. 

Primary consumers are the animals which eat the green plants and algae. They are called herbivores, for example cow, rabbit, goat, deer.

Secondary consumers are the animals which prey upon herbivores. For example, Fox, dog, cat

Tertiary consumers are those animals which prey upon all animals irrespective of trophic levels, such as lion, tiger and hawk.

Decomposers are organisms which decay the dead organic matter formed by the death of organism, leaf fall etc. For example, fungi and microbes.

The energy trapped by green plants is transferred to primary consumers, then to secondary consumers and then to tertiary consumers. There is an energy loss at each level, which means only 10% of energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next. This is called 10% Rule. 

For example, if a producer has 1000 calories of energy, then the herbivore will get only 100 calories. When the herbivore is eaten by primary carnivores, they get only 10 calories. Finally the top carnivores will get only 1 calorie. At each trophic level, 90% of energy is lost for activities such as respiration, movement etc.

The following diagram explains the concept.

Ecological pyramids are of different types as given below.

1. Pyramid of Number: Graphical representation of number of organisms at each trophic level is called pyramid of number.

2. Pyramid of Energy: When the energy level of each trophic level is represented in an ecological pyramid, it is called pyramid of energy.

3. Pyramid of Biomass: When the biomass of organisms at each trophic level is represented in an ecological pyramid, it is called pyramid of biomass.

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HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

 Hardy- Weinberg Equilibrium deals with the distribution of mendelian genes in a population of sexually reproducing individuals. 

The following are the main assumptions of the theory.

1. Allele frequencies in a population do not change from generation to generation. 

2. If the allele frequencies in a population with two alleles  at a locus are p and q, the distribution of the different allele combination will be p2, 2pq and q2. This frequency dostribution will not change from generation to generation, once the population is in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium.

p2+2pq+q2 = 1

also, p+q = 1

Where p2 (pp) is the frequency of homozygous dominant, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygous and q2 (qq) is the frequency of homozygous recessive. 

The above said conclusions of the Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium is applicable only under the following five conditions.

1. Natural selection is not operative in the population i.e., nature is not favoring a particular allele so that its frequency is not increasing in the population.

2. Mutation is not occurring, so that the formation of new alleles is prevented, which may other wise alter the frequency of the existing alleles.

3. Migration is not occurring, so that there is no inflow or out flow alleles from other places.

4. Population size is infinite, so that genetic drift is not happening. Genetic drift is the variation in gene frequency that occurs due to low number of individuals, as some fail to reproduce or does not perform in the expected ways.

5.Individuals in the population mate randomly, so that there is no bias to particular traits. 

FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB

 The process of life on earth follows a similar pattern for all organisms. All life forms require energy to run its day to day activities such as movement, communication, seeing and hearing. The ultimate source of energy for all living organisms is sun. The solar energy from the sun is trapped by the photosynthesizing plants, which are called as producers. Plants can trap up to 2% of solar energy reaching the earth. The light  energy trapped by plants is converted and stored as chemical energy in the form of biomolecules such as starch, glucose etc. 

SUN--------> LIGHT ENERGY---------> PLANTS---------PHOTOSYNTHEIS--------> CHEMICAL ENERGY

The herbivores eat photosynthesizing plants such as grasses, herbs etc. These herbivores which directly depend upon plants are called primary consumers. For example, grass hopper, rabbit, cow, goat. The herbivores are eaten by carnivores, such as snake, frog and lizard. These carnivores are eaten by large carnivores such as lion, tiger and hawk. Finally when all these organisms die, the dead body is eaten by detrivore animals such as millipedes, dung flies, worms etc or decayed by fungi and bacteria. 

This linear chain of organisms in the ecosystems, which are connected to each other by the process of eating and being eaten is called food chain.

The following are examples;

Maize---> Locust---> Lizard---> Snake

Corn--> Rat--> Owl.

Carrot-->Rabbit-->Fox--> Lion

Food chains are of two types:

1. Grazing food chain- The food chain that starts from  green plants and depend on solar radiation is called grazing food chain. Most of the food chains in the ecosystems are of this type.

2. Detritus food chain- The food chain that starts from a dead organic matter and less dependent on solar energy is termed detritus food chain. This mainly involves microbes, detrivores and their predators.

FOOD WEB 

In nature, we cannot find linear food chains, because organisms eat multiple types of food and eaten by different types of animals. In real, the process of eating and being eaten forms a web or organisms which are interdependent and forms a cluster of different food chains so that an interconnecting food web is formed. 

A food web is a collective representation of all food chains in an ecosystem.

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MAJOR AND MINOR ETHNIC GROUPS OF INDIA -Part I

People of India Project was launched by Anthropological Survey of India on 2 October  1985. The objective of the project was to enlist all the communities of India. It was found that 4635 communities exist in India and reported 461 tribal ethnic communities. Nearly 40 endogenous tribes exist in the Western Ghat region.

Major ethnic communities of the Western Ghat region:

1. Kanis 

Kanis or Kanikkars, a major tribe of the southern Western Ghats dustributed in Tamilnadu and Kerala states of India. They inhabit the hill ranges in villages consisting of 5-55 families. The total number of individuals range from 1200 to 2000. Some of them are hunter-gatherers. They also collect honey from the forest, involve in inland fishing and cultivate crops. They use around 350 plants. The most important among them is Trichopus zeylanicus known popularly as "arogya pacha' in malayalam, which is considered equal to chinese ginseng.

2. Kurichyas

Kurichyas are an important tribe in Kerala, living in Wayanad and adjacent areas of Kannur. They form nearly 10% of tribal population of Kerala. They are specialist in archery and martial arts. They fought against the British during the Pazhassi rule of North Malabar. They live in clusters called mittam or tharavadu, their head is known as Karanavar or pittan. They are matrilineal society. They worship goddess Kaali. They bury the dead and speak 'kurichya' language. There are nearly 30000 members in Kurichya community. They use nealy 110 plants for varous purposes. At present they are living by means of agricukture

3. Paniyas

Paniya community inhabit Wayanad of Kerala and Nilgiris of Tamilnadu. They are short, dark-skinned, and have curly hairs. They are considered to be of African origin, but some workers disagree it. Traditionally they have been bonded laborers often treated as slaves and sold along with plantations by the owners. They have excellent knowledge in agricultural and ethnomedicinal practices. They live in bamboo huts and they form 22% of the tribals in Kerala. They cultivate cardamom, pepper, ginger, coffee etc. Women wear large ear rings made of palm leaf rolls. They practice animism, but also worship Bhagavati.

4. Pulayas

Pulaya community, also known as Cheruma, is one of the ancient tribal communities of Kerala. They are short, black, have long mandibles and with flat nose. They were basically hunter gatherers and supposed to be the first land owners of the area. They claim to be descendants of  the Chera dynasty, indicating their name 'cheruma'. They have excellent knowledge in agricultural practices. They worship in sacred groves or 'kavu' and deities include Kaali and Chaathan'. They also worship ancestral spirits.

5. Cholanaikkars

Cholanaikkar is one of the earliest tribes in Kerala. They are also called as "Malanaikkar" and their number is only 360 as per census. Their name is supposed to have evolved from Chola= Shola forest as they inhabit forest areas and naikkar means king. They are found in Silent Valley region of Kerala. They form one of the last hunter gatherer communities of southern India. They are short, well built and dark complexioned. They live rock shelters called 'Kallulai" and live in groups called "Chemmam".

6. Kadars

Kadar community is found in the Anamalais of Tamilnadu and Western Ghats of Kerala. They are one of the most ancient tribal communities of India. They live deep inside forests, hence called 'Kadars'. They are hunter gatherers. As per the latest census, there are 650 members in the Kadar community and classified by UNESCO as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group -PTG- that they are at the verge of extinction. The huts of Kadars are located in hill slopes. Each village has 15 huts made of bamboo. their weekly markets are called 'sandhi'. They make many items of bamboo, such as bamboo vessels. They collect honey and other forest products. They are patriarchial society, the bridegroom should gift a comb made of bamboo during the marriage ceremony. They wear ''thali' in a black beaded chain.They follow animism and worship some trees. Recently in 2019, they have been in news for their popular protest "Ithu Enkal Adaavi", against evacuating them from forest. 

7.Todas

Toda community live in the Nilgiri region of Tamilnadu and considered as a PTG by the UNESCO. Tode is the sacred tree of Todas from which their name is evolved. They claim themselves as descendants of Pandavas. Their language is 'toduvam'. Their huts are rainbow-shaped and have a very small entrance to avoid cold weather. Their village is 'Othaikkal mundu'. There are 75 mundus at Nilgiri with around 2000 people. Buffalo rearing is their profession, and they are pure vegetarians. Their ritual involve buffalo sacrifice. They are specialists in embroidery and the shal they make is called Puthukkuli'

8. Kotas

Kota tribe is also a PTG tribe and they inhabit in the Nilgiri hills of Tamilnadu. As per the last census their number is only 308. Kota village is called Kokkal and huts are called pai. They speak kota language. They are very good musicians and artisans. They worship Kambattarayan and kaali.

9. Kurumbas

Kuruumba tribe lives in Wayanad district of Kerala and Nilgiris of Tamilnad. They live in 5-6 families in small villages called 'motta' or kombai'. They are known for black magic and witch craft. They were basically hunter gatherers and shepherds. Now they work in plantations. Their language is called kurumba. They cultivate ragi and other millets. They have rich musical tradition.Women tattoo their forehead and use soapnut for bathing. The muthali or ejaman is the head of the village. Meeting of villagers is called Urukkoottam.

10. Irulas

Irula tribe is distributed in three states, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Traditionally they are snake catchers, rat catchers and honey collectors. They are popular after the release of the movie, Jai Bhim, which portrays the struggles of Irula life.

Shijith Puthan Purayil

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem is an assemblage of organisms and the environment. It includes the living and non-living components. To understand the structure and function of ecosystem, you must be familiar with some basic terminologies in ecology.

1. Species: It is a unique organism with similar genetic identity. For example, all humans form a species called Homo sapiens 

2. Population: It is a group of individuals of same species. For example, a population of humans or cows.

3. Community: It refers to the populations of animals, plants and other organisms living in a specific region under similar environmental conditions. For example, mammals and plants in a forest, fishes and algae in a pond.

4. Ecosystem: It is a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical non-living environment. For example, a pond ecosystem.

Species --> Population ---> Community ---> Ecosystem

The concept of ecosystem was first introduced by A G Tansley (1935). According to Woodburry (1954) ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants, animals and other organisms are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others. 

Structure of Ecosystem

All ecosystems consist of the following basic components

1. Abiotic Component

    The abiotic component includes all non-living components of the ecosystem. For example,  soil, water, air, calcium carbonate, phosphates etc.

2. Biotic Component 

    The biotic component include all living organisms. For example, animals, plants and microbes. 

The biotic component can be grouped into two categories-

2.1. Autotrophic component/ Producers : These are organisms which can synthesize their own food using non living molecules. All green plants come under this category, they can fix radiant energy of sun and manufacture food in the form of molecules such as glucose and starch. 

2.2. Heterotrophic component/ Consumers: These are organisms which are unable to synthesize their food and depend on autotrophs. All non-green plants and all animals come under this category.

2.3. Decomposers: These are organisms which perform the role of decomposing all dead and decaying matter, there by ensuring the smooth function of bio-geo-chemical cycle. For example, fungi and bacteria. These are also known as Scavengers of Earth.

Producers

Any ecosystem is founded by the producers, which are capable of making their on food. They perform the one of the most fundamental reactions for sustaining on earth, called photosynthesis, that is synthesizing food using sun light. The green algae and cyanobacteria are assumed to be the first photosynthesizing organisms on earth.  All other organisms depend on producers such as herbs, shrubs and trees.

Consumers

Members of the ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by the producers are called consumers. For example, all animals. Deer, cow, goats etc eat the leaves of  grasses and other plants. Birds, monkeys etc eat fruits of the plants. Humans eat rice, wheat, ragi etc  They provide carbohydrates (Rice, wheat), fats (Nuts), proteins (green gram, bengal gram etc) and form steady source of food for all animals.

Consumers are classified as follows

1. Primary consumers: These are pure herbivores, which eat only plants or plant parts. eg: rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat etc.

2. Secondary consumers: These are animals which eat herbivores. They include carnivores and omnivores. They are basically flesh eating animals, but they also eat plant parts. eg: crow, sparrow, fox, dog, cat, snake etc.

3. Tertiary consumers: They are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. eg; tiger, lion, hawk, vulture etc.

Decomposers

Decomposers feed on dead and decaying matter. Imagine how the world would look if all the dead organisms remained without decaying! The decomposers recycle minerals back to earth. Hence they are called 'scavengers of earth'. Examples- Fungi and bacteria. 

Functioning of Ecosystem and energy transfer

Abiotic components such as air, water and soil provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic components. This process involves energy exchange and the energy comes from the sun in the form of light. The green plants convert inorganic matter to organic molecules such as glucose, starch, proteins and fatty acids. Hence they are called as producers. Photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation play a crucial role in fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Carbon is used to make glucose and nitrogen is used to make amino acids, which are very essential for sustaining life on earth. 

Energy gathered from sunlight by the producers in transferred to next levels such as herbivores which eat the plants. The energy transfer mainly occurs through food chains and food webs. It is a process of '

'eating and being eaten'. The energy received by herbivores from the producers is transferred to carnivores and omnivores. Finally the energy is transferred to top carnivores such as tiger and lion. When all the organism die, the dead matter is decomposed and recycled back to earth by the fungi and bacteria which also releases energy.

On average, only about 10% of energy stored as biomass in a trophic level is passed from one level to the next. This is known as ''the 10 percent rule''.

Functions of Ecosystem

There are mainly four functions of the ecosystem

1. Productivity

2. Decomposition

3. Energy flow

4. Nutrient cycling

1. Productivity

It is the rate of biomass production by any trophic level per unit area in unit time. It is measured as Weight (g/m2/year) or energy (kcal/m2/year).

Productivity is of two types- Primary productivity and secondary productivity.

Primary productivity

Primary productivity is the amount if biomass produced per unit area over a time of period by plants during photosynthesis. It is divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). 

The rate of production of TOTAL biomass by green plants during photosynthesis per unit area per unit time is known as gross primary productivity (GPP). Organisms use energy for their daily activities (respiration) from the energy synthesized during photosynthesis. The energy level remaining after respiration is known as net primary productivity (NPP) and this energy will be stored for future activity.

NPP= GPP- Respiration

Secondary Productivity

The rate of assimilation of organic matter at the level of consumers. It is the amount of energy available at the level of consumers.

2. Decomposition

It is the physical and chemical break down of complex organic matter formed when organisms die.  It is performed by fungi and bacteria. Termites, earth worms etc also feed on dead and decaying matter. Such organisms are called detrivores. 

Humification leads to the formation of soil. A dark colored organic substance called humus rich in cellulose and lignin. Humus is further degraded by microbes.

3. Energy flow

Plants capture sunlight, but they are able to capture only 2% of sunlight. The energy captured by the plants are transferred to next trophic levels. Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.

4. Food Chain

Food chain is the process of eating and being eaten. Herbs are eaten by herbivores, herbovores are eaten by carnivores. Food chains form food webs, which in turn becomes a path for energy transfer from one trophic level to the next.

Grass--> Grass hopper--> Frog--->Snake

Alexander Von Humboldt is known as 'Father of Ecology'. Read more about Alexander Von Humboldt.

Eugene P Odum is known as Father of Modern Ecology'. Read more about Eugene P Odum.

Ramdeo Misra is known as Father of Indian Ecology'. Read more about Ramdeo Misra.

Prepared by Shijith Puthan Purayil