ETHNOBOTANY AS A TOOL TO PROTECT INTERESTS OF ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnobotany is the documentation of traditional knowledge of ethnic groups so that the valuable knowledge is not lost from the community as all the communities undergo changes in the due course of time. An ethnobotanist mainly documents the different tribes, ethnic groups, their life styles, plants used for various purposes, their traditions, beliefs etc. 

An ethnobotanist identifies the plants used by the tribes as medicine, food, fodder, and other miscellaneous uses. Indigenous knowledge is usually hidden among the ethnic groups, as they don't usually mingle with the external world. However, a few intelligent men intrude into these societies, steal their intellectual property, and take patents, in some distant place for the commercial use of the knowledge. In such cases, the original creator of the knowledge is the community and it is not properly benefitted. Such incidents have been reported from various parts of the world.

The popular cases of biopiracy of Azadirchta indica, Basmati rice, etc. are some classical examples. 

Azadirachta indica or Neem was used by the Indians from time immemorial but was not properly documented under the IPR. Some foreign company had taken a patent on the use of Neem which prevented all others from using the knowledge. In such cases, proper documentation of the indigenous knowledge is important. 

The Indian government has started a web initiative called TKDL - Traditional Knowledge Digital Library to document all such indigenous knowledge so that any patenting authority can inspect false claims made by frauds. Therefore, ethnobotanical documentation is very important for the interests of ethnic groups.

In addition there are Patenting Laws, IPR rules , etc to protect the interests of the ethnic groups. 

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR)

The constitutional right granted by the government of a country to the creator or owner of any intellectual property to exclude others from using the same commercially for a given period of time is called Intellectual Property Right. It is framed for the benefit of all inventors, creators, writers, etc. to get a fare share of it's commercial use in the name of copy rights. 

The creator gets exclusive rights for his / her intellectual property, that is a creation of the mind or brain, such as a poem, a story, a logo, a painting, a scientific discovery or a cooking recipe. No one can use the same concept without legal consent of the original creator as per the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). 

Traditional knowledge also come under IPR system. It is usually the biopirates, who steal traditional knowledge such as the uses of some plants for specific diseases and market it commercially by making modern medical combinations. 

The following categories are generally included in the IPR system.

1. Industrial designs.

2. Literary and artistic works.

3. Scientific discoveries.

4. Performances of performing artists. 

5. trade marks, logos, commercial names, designations etc.

6. traditional knowledge.

IP is divided into two categories for ease of understanding: 

1. Industrial Property 2. Copyright

Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs. 

Properties are of two types - tangible property and intangible property i.e. one that is physically present and the other which is not in any physical form. Building, land, house, cash, jewelry are few examples of tangible properties which can be seen and felt physically. IP is intangible property.

The different types of Intellectual Property Rights are: 

i. Patents - Mainly given for discoveries eg: Electric Bulb, Car Engine, etc.

ii. Copyrights - Given for Stories, poems, etc.

iii. Trademarks- Given for trade names, product names etc. represented by TM

 iv. Industrial designs 

v. Protection of Integrated Circuits layout design 

vi. Geographical indications of goods - Ususally given to products from a specific geographical place. eg: Marayur Sharkara, Kasaragod Saree, Arnmula Kannadi, Darjeeling tea, Kanjipuram silk, Nagpur orange. 

vii. Biological diversity 

viii. Plant varieties and farmers rights 

IPR acts in India:

1. Indian Patents Acts, 1970

2. Indina Patents (Amendment) Act, 1999.

PARTICIPATORY FOREST MANAGEMENT

 Participatory forest management is a strategy to protect the forest and its resources with the help of local people residing nearby the forest. It has been considered the most effective strategy for forest management and conservation. Participatory forestry enables the involvement of people who have a direct stake in the forest and its resources in taking decisions regarding the forest, managing the forest and its resources, and formulating institutional frameworks for various forest-related programs. 

The inclusion of local communities in the conservation and management of the forest has been common for the last 25 years. Almost all countries in Africa and many in Asia are promoting Participatory Forest Management (PFM). Many countries are developing their national policies to include PFM as their plan of action.

The shift to PFM by the government is mainly due to the following aspects:

1. It is a more effective way of forest management as local people know the pulse of the forest, than any unknown newly recruited official.

2. It reduces the role and cost of the state in forest management.

3. It ensures livelihood for local people, as they get rewards from the government as honorarium. 

4. It is an effective method of decentralization of power.

5. The local people are more skilled 

6. it ensures a philosophical and psychological commitment of people in conserving the forest.

Roles of the people in PFM

1. Some local people, such as elders, teachers and local leaders can serve as a source of information regarding the forest. They have knowledge about the forest and they understand the needs of the local people. These people are a valuable source of information, hence called Key Informants.

2. People who share similar interests in the locality is treated as Interest Groups. An interest group can be formed based on age, gender, ethnic group etc. For example, a group of women who collect wood and honey from the forest or poor farmers in the locality.

The local people can be assigned the following duties:

1. Assessors of forest resources.

2. Decision makers of forest rules.

3. Implementers of forest action plans.

4.  Protectors of forest resources.

5. Silviculture breeders, experimenters etc.

6. Marketers of timber from forest.

History of PFM:

The local tribes of India had been suppressed intensely by various types of rules such as the Mughals, the British and even during early days of Independence. The Mughal rulers were unable to rule the tribes due to inaccessibility of the area. The tribals used 'warfare and withdraw' strategy to protect the forest resources from the Mughals. It was more aggressive with the entry of the British rulers. They tried to impose colonial rule on the tribals and extract revenue through 'Zamindars'. The tribals reacted violently and caused the Chur Rebellion which lasted from 1767 to 1980. It was the first ever rebellion against the British rule in India. But the British overpowered the tribes. 

The forest communities were further affected when Sal trees (Shorea robusta) were cut for making railway sleepers to expand the railway network. 

Post-Independence, India drafted the first Forest Policy in 1952, which proposed a functional classification of forests Protected forests, National forests, Village forests and tree-land. 

People's protests for forest conservation:

During 1970- 80, logging of trees for industrial purposes increased drastically and the people of Uttaranchal protested which was called Chipko Andolan. The villagers hugged the trees so as to prevent their cutting. As a result, the government of Uttar Pradesh imposed a 15 -year ban on tree felling.

The Arabari Experiment:

Forest officers of the Arabari region, of Midnapur district in West Bengal, recognized the role people can play in restoring degraded forests. They issued the first government order to include local people in protecting the forest. In return, 25% of the revenue obtained from the sale of timber resources was given to the locals.  This successful experiment led to the evolution of PFM concept.

The present state of PFM:

Today in India, we have 63618 forest protection committees spread over 27 states protecting 14 million hectares of forest.  

BIOPIRACY

When indigenous knowledge or a biological resource is used without the consent of the local people or the original inventor, it is considered Biopiracy. Many such cases have occurred in the case of patents; where private companies take the patent of indigenous knowledge such as to make medicines and commercialize it without the consent of the ethnic groups. It is an intellectual-level fraud for making a profit from bio-resources and indigenous knowledge.  

Biopiracy is a situation in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating from indigenous people, is used by others for profit without their permission or without providing compensation to them.

A few cases of biopiracy are mentioned below;

1. Patenting of Azadirachta indica

The people of India have been using neem for time immemorial for various purposes. Indians shared the knowledge to all the world, however pirating this knowledge, the USDA and an American Multi National Company W. R. Grace got a Patent (No.0426257B) from the European patent Officer on the "method of controlling the plants by the aid of hydrophobic extracted from neem oil. 

2. Patenting of Basmati Rice:

Basmati is a long grained aromatic rice traditionally cultivated in North India. In 1997 the US patenting and trademark office granted a patent of Basmati to an American company named Rise Tec Inc. The company claimed that they invented the rice variety! 

3. Rice Biopiracy:

A biotech company Syngenta had signed an MOU with Indira Gandhi Agricultural University to access Dr. Richcharia's (former director of Central Rice Research Institute and known as the Rice sage of India) priceless collection of 22,972 varieties of rice. 

ROLE OF ETHNIC GROUPS IN CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

The ethnic groups living in different parts of the world play a crucial role in the conservation of plant genetic resources. Many tribal societies have practices of worshipping nature. They believe that the earth does not belong to any single individual, but the generations to come also have rights in it. The famous quote by a Red Indian Tribal Chief is relevant in this scenario: "Only when the last tree has been cut down, the last fish has been caught and the last stream poisoned, Will we realize that we can not eat money."

About 300 million indigenous people are living in the world, of which 150 million live in Asia and 68 million live in India. There are 227 ethnic groups and 573 tribal communities in India belonging to Negroid, Proto- Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, West Breachy and Nordic racial stocks. They treat the forest as a shelter and eat forest resources. They protect plants based on their beliefs and uses.

List of plants conserved by ethnic groups:

Plants conserved based on a belief

1. Mangifera indica- (Anacardiaceae)- to worship Lord Vidhyadhara

2. Terminalia arjuna- (Combretaceae)- Lord Brahma.

3. Citrus medica- (Rutaceae)- Lord Brihaspati

4. Aegle marmelos- (Rutaceae)- Lord Shiva

5. Azadiracta indica- (Meliaceae)- Serpent King Nagaraja

6. Ocimum sanctum- (Lamiaceae)- Goddess Lakshmi

7. Nerium indicum- (Apocynaceae)- Lord Ganesh

8. Calotropis gigantea- (Asclepiadaceae)- Lord Shiva

Crop plants conserved by tribals

1. Amorphophallus paenonflodium- Araceae- Petiole /bulb as vegetable

2. Achyranthes aspera- Amaranthaceae- Vegetable

3. Bauhinia purpurea- Fabaceae- Leaf as vegetable.

4. Dioscorea alata- Dioscoriaceae- Tuber is edible.

5. Curculigo orchioides- Amaryllidaceae- Tuber is edible & medicine.

Plants protected in sacred groves

1. Alstonia scholaris- Apocynaceae

2. Helicteres isora.

3. Rauvolfia serpentina

4. Vateria indica

Plants used for snake bite as antidote

Acorus calamus, Bauhina purpurea, 

PLANTS USED BY TRIBALS

 1. FOOD PLANTS

The tribal people mainly depend on forest plants for their food requirements. In India about 800 edible plants are used by various tribal populations. Tribals collect various parts of the plants growing in forests such as fruits, flowers, seeds, young shoots, leaves, etc for eating. The following are examples

LEAF

Achyranthes aspera- Amaranthaceae- Young leaves.

Basella rubra- Basellaceae- Leaves

Bauhinia purpurea- Fabaceae- Leaves

Pouzolzia zeylanica- Urticaceae- Leaves.

Cannabis sativa- Bhang- Leaves and tender shoot- Rajasthan.

FRUIT

Aegle marmelos- Rutaceae.

Diospyros melanoxylon- Ebenaceae- 

INTOXICANTS & BEVERAGES

    Intoxicants or the beverages consumed by tribals for intoxication are of various types depending upon the plant from which they are obtained and the process of preparation. Women and children also consume these beverages during religious ceremonies or festivals. Moreover, these drinks also play a supplementary role for tribal people and are also used in small quantities as medicine for various ailments by different tribes. For example, rice beer is used as an intoxicant by most tribals in India and it is also used for medicinal purposes as a light tranquilizer, for treatment of fever, dysentery, diarrhea, and gynecological disorders.

1. Borassus flabellifer 

Family: Arecaceae 

This plant is commonly known as the ‘Asian Palmyra Palm’ or ‘Toddy Palm’ or ‘Wine palm .The sap of this plant is used by the tribals for making an alcoholic drink called ‘tadi.’ The sap is obtained by tapping the shoot top and collecting it in earthen pots. It is fermented before consumption.

2. Cannabis sativa 

 Family: Cannabaceae 

 A beverage called bhang lassi is prepared from the female flowers, especially during festivals. The buds along with leaves are crushed in a pestle and mortar, the paste is added to milk or curd and filtered, finally it is flavored with sugar, fruit and spices. Consumption of this beverage is part of ancient Hindu culture.

3. Eleusine coracana 

 Family: Poaceae

 An alcoholic drink called ‘paise’ is prepared from the grains of this plant. A fermented paste prepared from the grains of wheat or maize is used to make this liquor. This beverage is prepared fresh or a day earlier and tribal men, as well as women, consume at least, as well as women, one litre per head in the morning before going to fields for work. 

4. Ficus hispida 

Family: Moraceae

 Country liquor is prepared from this plant by tribals of Orissa. Tribals of Meghalaya use unripe fruit as vegetable. The fruit juice is used for various medicinal purposes also.

5. Madhuca longifolia

 Family: Sapotaceae

Dried corollas or flower buds of this plant are  fermented to obtain an alcoholic drink called ‘mahua’ which is very popular among the tribals of India. Gond and Kol tribes also use it for treating dysentery.

RESINS

Resins can be defined as oxidation products of various essential oils.

1. Gardenia resinifera 

Family: Rubiaceae 

Uses: Members of Gond tribe use resin obtained from the stem and buds of this plant as insecticide and repellant for flies. 

2. Butea monosperma 

Family: Fabaceae 

The gum resin is of ethno-medicinal importance and is used as tonic. It has diuretic and astringent properties.

3. Shorea robusta 

Family: Dipterocarpaceae. 

Sal resin is applied for relief from chest pain and cramps.

4. Pinus roxburghii 

Family: Pinaceae 

Besides being commercially important, pine resin has local medicinal uses also.It is used for treatment of boils, bone fractures, swellings, ulcers, urinary complaints and sprains.

OILS

1. Allium sativum 

Family: Liliaceae 

Oil obtained from garlic bulb is rich in sulphur and has strong antimicrobial activity .It is used by Indian tribals for head massage to treat headache. Gond tribes use it.

2. Azadirachta indica 

Family: Meliaceae 

Oil obtained from the seeds is called neem oil which is very aromatic.It is used for treatment of skin problems such as itching, healing of cuts and wounds.

3. Madhuca indica 

Family: Sapotaceae 

Oil is edible, commonly known as ‘garang’,’ idum’ or ‘mahua tel’. It is used as hair oil & lamp oil.

4. Ricinus communis 

Family: Euphorbiaceae 

Castor oil obtained from the seed of this plant is used by tribals for treating disorders like rheumatism, constipation and worm infestation.

MISCELLANEOUS- Religious and Cultural

Ficus religiosa- Peepal or Bodhi tree- 

Ficus benghalensis- Banyan tree

Aegle marmelos- Found in Shiva temples

Saraca indica- In Hinduism, this tree is associated to the God of Love, also known as the Kama Deva.

Azadirachta indica- associated with goddess Durga and many people believe that neem trees help in keeping evil spirits away.

Ocimum sanctum- Tulsi- used in temples.

Phyllanthus emblica- Chyavanprash

Cocos nucifera- in temple rituals.